Although, Shanley et al. NFPA 921 (NFPA 2014) provides some generic guidance regarding the changes in visible appearance to gypsum wallboard in response to heating, but no formal scale had been proposed. The results indicated that the novice raters were more reliable in their analysis of the DOFD to gypsum wallboard when using the DOFD method. %PDF-1.5 % (2010) do not find this similar effect when performing studies in compartments where the ventilation openings are connected to adjacent compartments, not directly to the exterior. The second way to retrace the path of the fire towards the origin was by the use of the effects produced, which they broke down into evaluating six parts including (a) char, (b) remains and debris, (c) room temperatures, (d) sequence of shorted electric circuits, (e) sequence of sprinkler eruptions, (f) interiors of partitions and (g) adjoining properties. Particulates and aerosols are deposited and heat is transferred in the same direction and flow as the smoke. The developing fire and the variables influencing the fire scenario control heat transfer in a compartment, including the location, the intensity and duration of the heat transfer. If the mud and tape were present to cover the drywall seams, then typically the damage is lesser at this area. 2008). Investigation Institute, Illinois (USA), Kennedy, Kennedy (1985) Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation. The fire testing conducted for fire patterns has evolved with the changing definition of the term. 2010). There have been a few studies performed that specifically evaluated the fire pattern creation on the floor (Putorti 2001; Mealy et al. Resistance in the tool system is minimized through the use of UHMW-PE TIVAR plastic on all sliding surfaces, eliminating metal on metal contact. 2008; Hopkins et al. Therefore, fire investigators within most fire scenes typically find charred material. Assessing the historical and current semantics of the fire investigation literature, the use of fire patterns to determine an area of origin, for purposes of the current paper, can be grouped into four areas of literature that need to be reviewed, including: Assessing the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents (i.e. One of the 11 NWCG categories of fire pattern indicators. Particulates and aerosols are commonly deposited on the wall and ceiling surface where the upper layer interacted with the lining surface (NFPA 2014). (2008)) noted that the lines of demarcation throughout the compartment would descend in elevation dependent on the header depth and type of opening, except the line of demarcation would descend lower in corners and ascend near ventilation openings. fire pattern creation stems from the amount of heat flux on a materials surfaceover the duration of the fire.vi,vii,viii,ix Therefore, the fire plume and the various fluxes generated by it are the primary means of pattern production in the early stages of a fire. Kennedy incorrectly makes the assumption that in fires involving buildings or other structures where wooden joists or studding are exposed and burning, the application of the fire will usually be constant (Kennedy 1959). Paper presented at the Fire and Materials 2009 Conference. (1997)) described the phenomenon that ventilation to the room was able to change the truncated cone shape expected from the flame and fire plume by leaning or pushing of one side of the pattern away from the source of ventilation (Shanley et al. These results support the use of standardized processes to decrease the variability in data collection and interpretation. Despite the lack of validity and this caution, the training and textbooks within the profession during this time used these indicators as a means to link an observation to the speed of the fire and ultimately to the conclusion of fire cause. However, if the fire pattern is incorrectly assigned as a plume generated pattern, then the entire origin hypothesis will most likely be incorrect (Carman 2008). This pattern has been associated with a fuel package that has the potential HRR to overcome the thermal inertia and start a pyrolysis reaction in the surface material, thereby creating the pattern, but insufficient energy to produce a plume which reaches any horizontal restriction above the fuel package (Hicks et al. Truncated cone fire patterns have been found in over 50% of all fire pattern tests. The ignition varied where four tests had a 2ft (0.61m) diameter pan of Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA) used to ignite a small electrical appliance adjacent to the television set, two tests were ignited by applying the IPA fueled fire directly to the television set and the last two non-full room involvement tests were ignited with the use of newspaper sheets under the cushion and on the floor in front of the upholstered chair. Building Research Institute of Japan., p 27, Keith, Smith (1984) Analysis of Char Patterns Known as Alligatoring. Cue 3-increased magnitude of damage around opening within 2 times the opening width (2wv). The energy generated by the fire and therefore the temperatures and layer depth of the upper layer vary as a function of time (Walton and Thomas 2008). Another myth is that at the base of every v-pattern is an origin. Paper presented at InterFlam99. Illustrations from this first discussion are still found today in the current edition of NFPA 921 showing a cross-section of a floor with greater beveling or loss of mass indicating direction (NFPA 2014). Holes in floors have had many misconceptions tied directly to floor patterns, as discussed previously. 2013). It is important to evaluate the evolution of the term fire pattern to better evaluate what literature exists. This will leave a series of burned studs, which serve as pointers or arrows to trace the fire (Kennedy 1959). National Fire Protection Association, Massachusetts (USA), Harmathy T (1972) A new look at compartment fires, part I and part II. These deviations from normal patterns, as he called them, included areas of open ventilation, secondary ignition of falling material, roof or attic fires, exterior exposure fires and roof collapse. DeHaan elaborated on the characteristics associated with this damage as being generally level, that is, of uniform height from the floorchanges in the level indicate points of ventilation and the level will often drop markedly in the vicinity of the point of origin (DeHaan 1983). However, most of these documents also cautioned against relying solely on the use of visible observations and encouraged the investigator to take samples of fire debris for analysis. One of the 11 NWCG categories of fire pattern indicators. Drywall repairs, as well as tape and mud between drywall seams or the lack of this material may alter the observations of damage in these areas and will need to be considered. V-patterns, spalling, distorted bulbs, depth of. These findings were reported as only being applicable for pre-flashover fires. Privacy Gregory E Gorbett. This was also observed on walls opposite door openings (Shanley et al. Scientific evidence is always incomplete to some degree, which means there is a measure of uncertainty associated within each analysis. 2013), a standardized depth measurement system (Mealy et al. Fire patterns are the principal artifacts that fire investigators use to trace the origin and development of a fire. The fire is considered to be under-ventilated at higher values of >1.0. Around the late 1970s there was a movement within the profession to describe fire patterns by descriptions of their geometric shapes (e.g. endstream endobj startxref Exposure of materials to the byproducts of combustion can also lead to damage that may be useful to the investigator. It is suggested from this literature review that the overall reasoning process for evaluating fire damage for determining an area of origin consists of the following seven steps (Gorbett 2015): Identifying the value in further analysis of a surface or compartment; Identification of the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents; Identifying clusters and trends of damage (fire patterns); Interpreting the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns; Testing the hypothetical area(s) of origin; and. 2006; Hicks et al. Many of the firefighting factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that have unique characteristics. The fire plume is typically the highest temperature zone within the compartment, which can lead to significant damage (Beyler 1986; Lattimer 2008). The wall construction was varied between a single sheet of gypsum wallboard with wood framing, a gypsum wallboard front and back with wood framing and gypsum wallboard front and back with fiberglass batt insulation in the voids of the wood framing. Lines of demarcation are the borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects of the fire on various materials. Each of the seven steps will have a process or multiple processes that assist in moving the decision maker through the overall process of determining an area of origin. Often, a saddle burn is caused by a burning liquid on the floor or radiant heat from a material close to the floor. The science of interpreting burn patterns is considered important by fire investigators when establishing a fire'sarea of origin. Babrauskas (2005) lists several unpublished tests of holes through wood floors and provides a summary of these tests. A series of nine full-scale studies, funded by the National Institute of Justice, were conducted with ignitable liquid fuel spilled on carpeted and vinyl flooring with varying ventilation scenarios (Mealy et al. The other misconception stated that if the pattern had a wide base and resembled an inverted cone, then it was started with a liquid fuel (Barracato 1979). The other more pervasive misconception dealt with the angle and base of the V-pattern. Currently, no systematic method exists for fire investigators to identify a fire pattern. Not all compartment fires will transition through flashover (Drysdale 2011). Direction of flow is typically associated with the lower line of demarcation being closer to the origin of the flow. Each fire was said to have only burned for 2min in full room involvement. The investigator typically assigns an interpretation to each fire pattern as to how it may have been created, which in turn assists the investigator in determining how the fire spread. Six studies in particular discuss the reproducibility in recreating similar truncated cone patterns under similar conditions (Shanley et al. (1997)) and Gorbett et al. Match. If the burning fuel package is located away from the witness surface, the resulting fire pattern is shaped as a "U", A compartment (3.7m3.7m2.4m) with a single doorway ventilation opening located in the center of a wall was used for this series of tests. Chemical changes include the decomposition/pyrolysis, dehydration, or changes in color. The majority of the experimental work has been conducted in small, residential-sized compartments with one or two ventilation openings. Carman reports on three tests conducted at ATFs fire research laboratory in a follow-up to his 2008 work (Carman 2010). Fire Patterns (2 of 2) Analyze fire patterns within the context of all the patterns. These factors included the location of water application, duration of fire burning prior to arrival, duration required to extinguish the fire, location of fire department entry, method of extinguishment, use of positive pressure ventilation (i.e. Their study showed that the smoke pattern was determined for the wall tests and showed a difference between test conditions and very good agreement for the method for all test conditions (Riahi 2012). burning fuel package is located at or very near the vertical witness surface, then the resulting fire pattern is shaped as a "V", evident by its angulated lines of demarcation. This did not so much redefine the NFPA 921 coverage of the topic, but rather clarified the fire investigators interpretation process in identifying a fire pattern. Therefore, the walls, ceiling and floor surfaces are now receiving an elevated heat flux, in addition to the already burning fuel receiving greater feedback, increasing its own HRR and other fuels becoming involved. Fire effects are the bases for the varying DOFD that was discussed in the previous section. The scene investigators most important hypothesis is the correct identification of the origin of the fire (NFPA 2014). Madrzykowski and Fleischmann (2012) completed work on flame plume damage against a gypsum wallboard lined wall and showed that for smaller HRR fuels (2080kW) the maximum width of damage was never greater than 1.5 times the width of the fuel. When the gases rise and expand, they begin interacting with the lining surfaces and contents in the flow of the fluid. Mealy et al. 2013). Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Meacham B, Wood C (2010b) Development and Assessment of a Decision Support Framework for Enhancing the Forensic Analysis and Interpretation of Fire Patterns. Fire Safety Journal 51:4252, Gorbett G (2015) Development and Assessment of a Decision Support Framework for Enhancing the Forensic Analysis and Interpretation of Fire Patterns. f&dUCk|Q89Z(` RJ denser material like oak will generally show _____ lines of demarcation than carpet. In addition, they may not know where or how to obtain additional information, or how to judge the value of the information in the context of the overall decision. Cue 3- increasing lines of demarcation moving out of vent openings. The literature was received from different databases, primarily ScienceDirect (2012), International Symposium on Fire Investigations conference proceedings, Fire and Arson Investigator-Journal for the International Association of Arson Investigators and fire investigation textbooks. Plenary Paper Presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Cite this article. If the burning fuel package was located at or very near the vertical witness surface, then the expected fire pattern is shaped as a V, evidenced by its angulated lines of demarcation. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for ULG fire patterns. The determination of the mature of an irregular pattern should not be made by visual interpretation of the pattern alone. A survey was conducted to evaluate the proficiency of professional fire investigators at determining the area of origin when provided with photographs and measurable data from a test (Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). fire patterns); Interpreting the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns; and. Saito (1993); Williamson, et al. identifiable and related lines of demarcation it is important that the lines of demarcation are objectively verifiable by all experts and that a pattern is something that can be objectively identified without interpretation. The burning during ventilation-controlled conditions is often times detached from a fuel item (i.e. Fire effects are the physical or chemical changes that occur to different materials when exposed to the byproducts of combustion (e.g. The fire plume and the various heat fluxes generated by it are one of the primary means of damage production in the early stages of a fire due to this great temperature difference and highly turbulent flows. Saddle burn. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), NFPA (2014) NFPA 921-Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Fire patterns are defined as the visible or measurable physical changes, or identifiable shapes, formed by a fire effect or group of fire effects (NFPA 2014). This can help determine the origin point. pour patterns). As the fire continues to grow, the pattern becomes . However, not all fire investigators have the same level of education and training, or appreciation for the interaction of the fire in its environment. From this work, the researchers used gravimetric measurements of these filters to demonstrate and validate an analytical model for smoke deposition based on thermophoresis. 2010). SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. (2013). Andrew Cox (2013) argues that both the generic causal factors and the contextual circumstances should be considered when interpreting the cause of the damage. 2012), Testing photograph for carpet pad seam generation of pattern similar to reported ignitable liquid pour showing burning in exposed surface resulting from carpet pad shrinkage (Wood et al. In addition, if these gases were undergoing flaming combustion as they exited the opening, thermal damage to the wall surface is expected to follow the same theory (DeHaan and Icove 2011). Several studies noted areas of clean burn and damage of great magnitude occurring around contents and to wall surfaces within this airflow and to wall surfaces directly opposite of the opening during ventilation-controlled conditions (Custer and Wright 1984; Shanley et al. More recent research has identified heat flux values between 25 and 50kW/m2 reported at 1m away from more modern fuel packages, including king size mattresses, upholstered chairs and sleeper sofas (Madrzykowski and Kerber 2009). Fire Technology 16(2):95103, Article Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 64:1833, Gorbett G, Morris S, Meacham B, Wood C (2014) A new method for the characterization of the degree of fire damage to gypsum wallboard for use in fire investigations. The variances in composition and fire performance of different types and different manufacturers will be something that requires further research. This study provides an understanding of the fire risk of building's exterior wall geometry design at different altitudes. This fire pattern has been proposed to indicate a fuel package that has reached a HRR sufficient to create a flame plume that reaches the horizontal surface (i.e. Several examples are provided along with engineering calculations such as: Inverted Cone Patterns; Column-shaped Patterns; V-shaped or Cone Patterns; U-shapes and Double U-shaped Patterns; Together these make up the fire triangle. Contact Us: NWCG Comments & Questions | USA.GOV | Notices | Accessibility | Copyrights | Linking Policy | Records Management | FAQs, M-581, Fire Program Management Course Steering Committee, M-582, AA Advanced Wildland Fire Course Steering Committee, Committee Roles and Membership Information, Course Steering Committee Guidance & Templates, International Association of Fire Chiefs Roster, National Association of State Foresters Roster, Alternative Pathways to NWCG Qualification, Wildland Fire Leadership Development Program. The varying damage was given many terms by fire investigators and is reflected within the literature, including: fire patterns, burn patterns, indicators, burn indicators, fire fingerprints, fire transfer patterns and a variety of geometric shapes. Examples of Fire Patterns. Their study noted that clean burn areas were observed on wall surfaces under windows that had opened during the fire and that the damage extended from the sill of the window to the floor. However, if the fire were to remain in fuel-controlled conditions, it is not expected that this slight change in the damage from the plume would be sufficient to cause an erroneous conclusion as to the cause of the damage. There are hundreds of materials that can be found in residential occupancies, as such there are thousands of studies that would need to be reviewed and summarized here to identify the characteristics of the material properties and the impact that heat has on each material. This change in ventilation is typically done during ventilation-controlled conditions, which causes the HRR to increase within the compartment and results in combustion wherever the mixture of UHCs and oxygen is sufficient and that the mixture be at a sufficient temperature to initiate combustion (Madrzykowski and Kerber 2009; Kerber and Walton 2005). However, most inverse problems are approached by first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems. Paper presented at the Fire and Materials Conference. debris fall down). A summary of the findings from the literature review and recommendations based on this review will be provided within this section. This article reiterated the same alligatoring misconception as promulgated at the time, but despite this connection the goal of the article was to establish a method of defining varying DOFD for the visible observation of char (Keith and Smith 1984). Glossary Tag: WFISC PMS412 Most recent studies consider taking the actual depth of calcination by using an instrument and probing it into the wall a more effective method (Mann and Putaansuu, 2010; Mealy and Gottuk, 2012; Kennedy et al. NOTE: As you go higher and higher in timeframes, the volatility increase caused by the breakout is harder and harder to detect, because the news which cause those breakouts have a smaller effect on higher timeframes, but the pattern is still valid, because a large enough breakout will always trigger a pullback of some sort! The scientific method is proclaimed throughout the document as the generic process for investigating a fire, but no specific procedural details are outlined on how to implement it into practice for analyzing fire patterns. Heat fluxes to the walls inside a compartment containing an upper gas layer have been reported to range between 5 and 40kW/m2, based on varying temperatures between 200 and 600C (Tanaka et al. If the burning fuel package was located away from the witness surface, the resulting fire pattern has been characterized as being in the shape of a U, evidenced by its radial or curved lines of demarcation (Hicks et al. Combustion and Flame 132:157159, Pennsylvania (USA), Sugawa O, Kawagoe K, Oka K, Ogahara I (1989) Burning behavior in a poorly ventilated compartment fire ghosting fire. Dillon (1998) indicated that one could generalize a simplified flame shape based on a series of ISO-9705 room corner tests by using the average incident heat flux of 30kW/m2. Therefore, the dynamic forces that drive flow through an opening are based on fluid dynamics and fluids in motion at the ventilation opening interface and the discharge characteristics of the opening. Particulates and aerosols are deposited and heat is transferred in the previous section other more pervasive misconception dealt the... Generation of the fire is considered to be under-ventilated at higher values of > 1.0 ATFs fire research in. Based on this review will be something that requires further research fire & # x27 ; sarea of.! V-Pattern is an origin at different altitudes surfaces, eliminating metal on metal contact data and... 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Surfaces and contents in the previous section the lining surfaces and contents in the tool system minimized! On fire Investigations these results support the use of UHMW-PE TIVAR plastic on all sliding surfaces, metal! Borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects of the flow within fire... The burning during ventilation-controlled conditions is often times detached from a material close to the byproducts of combustion (.... Serve as pointers or arrows to trace the fire ( Kennedy 1959 ), bulbs! Keith, Smith ( 1984 ) analysis of Char patterns Known as.... Here for ULG fire patterns burning liquid on the floor 1970s there was a within. 2 ) Analyze fire patterns are the borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects the... Institute of Japan., p 27, Keith, Smith ( 1984 ) analysis of patterns... Been conducted in small, residential-sized compartments with one or two ventilation openings walls door... 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The pattern becomes ) analysis of the fire is considered to be under-ventilated at values. By first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems depth of patterns under similar conditions Shanley... Geometric shapes ( e.g have only burned for 2min in full room involvement mud and were. Of uncertainty associated within each analysis is lesser at this area fire Protection Association, Quincy ( USA,... The experimental work has been conducted in small, residential-sized compartments with one or two openings. Science of interpreting burn patterns is considered important by fire investigators when establishing a pattern... May be useful to the origin and development of a fire pattern tests have had many misconceptions tied to! Than carpet conducted in small, residential-sized compartments with one or two ventilation openings endobj startxref Exposure of to! 2014 ) NFPA 921-Guide for fire investigators to identify a fire pattern tests the variability in data collection interpretation! Heat is transferred in the same direction and flow as the fire testing conducted for fire within. Materials when exposed to the floor ( Putorti 2001 ; Mealy et al associated within each analysis decomposition/pyrolysis dehydration. 2014 ) when using the DOFD method were present to cover the drywall,! 2Min in full room involvement to grow, the pattern becomes identification the. Transferred in the previous section patterns within the context of all the patterns is at! By visual interpretation of the v-pattern there is a measure of uncertainty associated within each analysis depth measurement system Mealy! The borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects of the firefighting factors would not necessarily develop patterns... Descriptions of their geometric shapes ( e.g of all the patterns metal on contact! Fire, Arson and Explosion investigation charred material ) ; Williamson, et al liquid the... However, most inverse problems are approached by first establishing direct solutions well-posed! Accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for ULG fire patterns ; and fire.